Global Map of Selected POPs-contaminated Sites

See the map on Research Gate

POPs – persistent organic pollutants – are hazardous chemicals with distinctive and dangerous properties. They persist in the environment for a long time, can travel long distances through air or sea, and are ‘bioaccumulative’. This means they build up in living organisms, mainly in fatty tissue, with concentrations increasing up the food chain – peaking in top predators such as humans and polar bears. POPs are highly toxic, and levels found in some people and animals exceed those known to cause health and biological effects. Many act as endocrine disruptors (interfering with hormones), while others are carcinogenic, mutagenic (affecting DNA), or teratogenic (causing birth defects).

Some POPs are pesticides, others are industrial chemicals, and some are unintentionally produced during chemical or combustion processes. In all cases, they degrade very slowly and remain in the environment long after pollution sources cease. Because their use and production inevitably lead to environmental release, POPs pose serious, unavoidable risks to human health and ecosystems. It is therefore essential to ban or at least severely restrict their use and eliminate legacy stockpiles and residues. Identification of POPs contaminated sites is important to assess exposure risks but also to contribute to inventories of contaminated sites. Once developed, inventories can be converted to interactive maps and published online contributing to public right to know about POP risks in their region. More information about inventory development can be accessed in the BAT BEP guidance on POP contaminated sites [1].

Safer alternatives are widely available and significantly reduce risks to people and wildlife. There are also better options for technologies and practices, such as waste incineration, that unintentionally generate POPs [2].

The Stockholm Convention

 The Stockholm Convention is a global, legally binding treaty that entered into force on 17 May 2004 and, as of 1 January 2025, includes 186 Parties. It aims to eliminate major POPs, including pesticides, industrial chemicals, and unintentionally produced substances such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (known as 'dioxins') [3].

 Unlike earlier treaties focused only on air emissions (e.g. the Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention) or waste transport (Basel Convention), the Stockholm Convention addresses all major pathways by which POPs contaminate the environment, food chains, and human health.

 This map highlights POP-contaminated sites, which are increasingly important as unremediated locations remain major sources of pollution. Although efforts were made to gather the most current information, the status of the sites presented on the map may have changed, and some of them may have already been remediated.

Article 6 of the Convention states: 'In order to ensure that stockpiles consisting of or containing chemicals listed' under the Convention 'are managed in a manner protective of human health and the environment, each Party shall:' among other actions,'(e) Endeavour to develop appropriate strategies for identifying sites contaminated by chemicals listed in Annex A, B or C; if remediation of those sites is undertaken, it shall be performed in an environmentally sound manner'.

To assist Parties, experts on best available techniques (BAT) and best environmental practices (BEP) have developed specialized guidance, incorporating comments from Parties, observers, and relevant stakeholders. (For definition of POPs-contaminated sites see opposite side with a map.)

POPs-contaminated sites

 Although the guidance document provides a more detailed definition and description of POPs-contaminated sites, we offer a brief summary here. A POPs-contaminated site is a location where persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are present at concentrations above natural background levels, posing or potentially posing a risk to human health and the environment. While there is no single global definition, most national frameworks classify a site as contaminated if pollution significantly harms people, ecosystems, water sources, or other receptors. The contamination may result from industrial activities, pesticide use, waste disposal, or other human actions leading to the accumulation of hazardous substances in soil, water, or air. 

To determine if a site is contaminated with POPs, a site-specific assessment is necessary, involving the measurement of pollutant levels and evaluation of associated risks. Unlike general policy definitions, which provide broad criteria for contamination, assessing POPs contamination requires scientific data to establish whether the pollutants exceed safe thresholds and pose a threat to human health or the environment. Once a site has been investigated and confirmed as a POP contaminated site it can be added to a national inventory of sites. This allows a risk-based comparison between sites and allocation of scarce resources to cleaning up the highest risk sites first. An inventory can also be converted to an interactive map locating the sites and providing summary information on contamination. Examples include the EU hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) inventory [4], the PFAS data Hub map [5]and the Australian PFAS Chemicals Map [6]. In early 2023, The Forever Pollution Project [7] revealed nearly 23,000 PFAS-contaminated sites across Europe, highlighting the power of investigative journalism. 

More information on how to develop POP contaminated sites inventories is available in the Stockholm Convention Guidance on best available techniques and best environmental practices for the management of sites contaminated with persistent organic pollutants [1].

This Global Map of Selected POPs-contaminated Sites is by no means intended to compete with the above-mentioned projects, nor does it aim to do so. However, it illustrates that sites contaminated with POPs can take many forms — from old, mostly abandoned chemical plants that used to produce pesticides or technical POPs and now represent vast areas polluted with these substances, to obsolete pesticide storage sites, and even small medical waste incinerators with piles of dioxin-contaminated ash. Contaminated sites can also include facilities tainted with PCBs found in paints, whose removal can result in serious pollution spreading along several kilometers of a river. This diversity is what the presented map aims to show.

To successfully identify and manage POPs-contaminated sites — especially given their wide range of forms — a global guidance document is essential.

Risk reduction: How to get rid of POPs in wastes generated by remediation of contaminated sites?

After identifying contaminated sites, the question arises: how to manage POPs in waste from remediation? The best approach is prevention—stopping POPs from entering the environment, mainly through waste. This can be achieved by banning the production and use of intentional POPs and choosing technologies that do not generate unintentional POPs-like dioxins or PCBs. 

A key example of a POPs source is medical waste incineration, which can be avoided by:

a) using non-combustion technologies such as autoclaves, and

b) ensuring proper waste segregation in hospitals. 

Alternative technologies and practices also exist for managing other types of waste that are often sent for incineration and co-processing (burning waste in cement kilns) which are both sources of unintentional POPs [2].

 For existing POP-containing waste, various management strategies exist. The expert group working on BAT/BEP Guidelines reviewed the effectiveness of non-combustion technologies for POP destruction [8]. Some methods promise effective elimination while preventing new POP formation, as required by the Stockholm Convention. In contrast, incineration—whether in waste incinerators or cement kilns—produces new POPs like dioxins, which then accumulate in the resulting waste and risk further environmental release.

List of contaminated sites

Northern America

Greenland

No: 1. Camp Century. PCBs

Characteristic: Camp Century was built in 1959 and advertised as a U.S. research site, but also hosted a clandestine missile facility [9]. Operations at Camp Century ceased in 1964. Seasonal operations continued until 1967, when the base was abandoned with minimal decommissioning, as engineering design of the era assumed that the base would be “preserved for eternity” by perpetual snowfall. PCBs were well suited for Arctic use in insulating fluids and paints, given their high heat capacity, low flammability, and physical flexibility [10]. While substantial PCB remediation efforts have been undertaken at the majority of 63 former Distant Early Warning (DEW) bases built along the Arctic Circle in the 1960s [10], Camp Century is only one of five abandoned and unremediated ice sheet bases in the vicinity of Thule AB [11]. 

POPs levels: PCB concentration in some paints used by DEW bases exceeds 5% by weight [10]. Colgan et al. (2016) therefore it is speculated that PCBs are the most consequential waste at Camp Century.

Canada

No. 2. Sydney, Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia. PCBs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: Throughout the 20th century, runoff from coke ovens associated with Sydney Steel Corporation's (SYSCO) filled the estuary with the typical variety of coal-based contaminants and sludge, including contamination with PCBs. 

Economy: After extensive public consultation and technical studies, a C$400 million cleanup plan, jointly funded by the Government of Canada and Government of Nova Scotia, was announced in January 2007.The cleanup was completed in 2013 [12].

No. 3. Borden (Canadian Forces Base Borden), Ontario. PFOS, PFOA, and other PFAS.

Characteristic: Firefighting foam (aqueous film-forming foam) containing PFAS were used at the military base. In 2021–2022, ALTRA executed Canada's largest PFAS remediation project at Borden Canadian Forces Base, treating 10 million liters of AFFF- and hydrocarbon-contaminated groundwater and over 150,000 tons of contaminated soil, achieving 99.8% PFAS removal efficiency in a pilot test of its Foam Fractionation technology [13].

POPs levels: The total PFAS concentration in the contaminated groundwater was >10 ppm, and treatment reduced the sum of 28 specific PFAS from >1.68 ppm to 3,400 ppt, achieving a 99.8% removal efficiency [13].

No. 4. Swan Hills, Alberta. PCBs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs, HCB.

Characteristic: The Swan Hills Solid Waste Treatment Centre (SHSWTC) has incinerated PCBs and hazardous waste since 1987, processing over 295,000 tonnes [2, 14, 15]. The facility’s history includes several accidents, including a 1996 incinerator malfunction that released dioxins, furans, and PCBs, and a 1997 explosion that elevated PCB levels 14 times above average in emissions. Another explosion in 2009 led to a 10-month shutdown [16]. 

POPs levels: PCB accumulation in snow and sediments rose from 3 μg·m²·year⁻¹ in the 1980s to 82 μg·m²·year⁻¹ in 1997 [17]. Monitoring showed increasing emissions and contamination of a nearby lake [18]. Elevated PCB, dioxin, and furan levels were found in deer liver and muscle near Chrystina Lake [19, 20]. 

Economy: By 2024, post-closure cleanup costs rose from $20 million in 2000 to an estimated $223 million, straining provincial finances [15, 21].

United States of America (USA)

No. 5. Gustavus, Alaska. PFOS, PFHxS and other PFAS.

Characteristic: Firefighting foams (aqueous film-forming foam) containing PFAS were used at the airport’s fire training site. 

POPs levels: The similarity in PFAS distribution profiles between samples collected near the source—Gustavus Department of Transportation (14,600 ng/L) and Gustavus Airport (228 ng/L)—and residential water suggests that contamination in private wells likely originated from the airport. Additionally, a significant correlation between select PFAS levels in paired drinking water and serum samples indicates that drinking water is a major contributor to PFAS body burden in Gustavus residents [22]. The measured PFAS levels included 17 compounds, such as PFOS and PFHxS, with a drinking water maximum of 120 ng/L and a maximum ΣPFAS concentration in serum of 13.1 ng/mL [22]

No. 6. China Lake (Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake), Kern, San Bernardino and Inyo Counties, California. PFOS, PFOA and other PFAS.

Characteristic: The facility primarily focused on research, development, testing, and evaluation of various weapons systems for the U.S. Navy. Firefighting foam (aqueous film-forming foam, or AFFF), developed by the Defense Department in the 1960s, was widely used at the site. Although the Defense Department had long been aware of the toxic effects of PFAS pollution, it took a decade to issue a risk alert to service members and did not begin steps to replace AFFF until 2015. 

POPs levels: Measured PFOS+PFOA levels in on-base groundwater reached 8,000,000 ng/L [23].

No. 7. Salt Lake City, Utah. PFOS, PFOA and other PFAS.

Characteristic: The facility focuses on airborne operations and paratrooper training. The primary source of PFAS contamination at the site is firefighting foam (aqueous film-forming foam, or AFFF), which was developed by the Defense Department in the 1960s and widely used for fire suppression. Although the Defense Department had long been aware of the toxic effects of PFAS pollution, it took a decade to issue a risk alert to service members and did not begin steps to replace AFFF until 2015. POPs levels: Groundwater at the site is contaminated with PFOS, PFOA, and other PFAS, with measured concentrations of PFOA reaching 41,600 ng/L and PFOS 4,300 ng/L [23].

No. 8. Calcasieu Estuary, Louisiana. PCDD/Fs.

Characteristic: At least 120,000 tons of dioxin-contaminated wastes was dumped into the bayou [24, 25]. 

POPs levels: PCDD/Fs were observed in soil, blood serum samples of inhabitants living in neighborhood and in the eggs of free range chicken [26, 27].

No. 9. Painesville and Dover, Ohio. SCCPs.

Characteristic: High levels of SCCPs were observed in water as consequence of SCCPs production [28, 29].

POPs levels: Concentrations of SCCPs as high as 3.0 μg/L were detected upstream and downstream from the plant [28].

 No. 10. Passaic River and Newark Bay, New Jersey. DDT, PCDDs.

Characteristic: Between 1948 and 1969, a chemical plant in Newark, NJ, produced 2,4,5-T, accounting for about 15% of U.S. production, causing severe dioxin (PCDD/F) contamination in Newark Bay and the Passaic River [30]. 2,4,5-T was a key ingredient in Agent Orange, a herbicide used in the Vietnam War. 

POPs levels: Contamination with PCDDs and DDT and its metabolites was observed mainly in sediments. of sediments: PCDDs, DDT metabolites [30, 31]. 

Economy: The cleanup project for 8.3 miles of the Passaic River, with an estimated cost of $165 million, was agreed upon in 2016. The work aimed to remove 3.5 million cubic yards of toxic sediment [32].

Bermuda

No. 11. Morgan’s Point. PCBs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: Underwater landfill of incineration ash from a municipal waste incinerator at Morgan’s Point. This has led to contamination of sediments and potential bioaccumulation in marine organisms of PCBs, PCDD/Fs and PAHs.

POPs levels: sediments PCBs: 0.49 – 1080 ng/g; dl PCBs: 0.45 – 110 pg WHO-TEQ/g; PCDD/Fs: 0.22 – 29 pg WHO-TEQ/g [33].

Central America

Mexico

No. 12. San Felipe, Nuevo Mercurio, Zacatecas. PCBs.

Characteristic: The site is a mining location with contamination from mining activities [34].

POPs levels: High PCB levels were detected in children’s blood (1,600 ± 8,800 ng/g lipids) [34]. Soil PCB concentrations range from non-detectable to 190 ng/g [35].

No. 13. Mezquital Valley, Mexico City's wastewater. PFOA and other PFAS.

Characteristic: PFAS migrate from urban to rural areas through the reuse of Mexico City's wastewater for agricultural irrigation in Mezquital Valley, posing risks to farmers, crop consumers, and likely the groundwater [36].

POPs levels: The concentration of ΣPFCA was 419.4 ± 24.3 ng/L in underground sewage and 591.1 ± 39 ng/L in the open-air canal, including PFOA and other PFCAs [36].

No. 14. Alpuyeca, Morelos. PCBs, endosulfan.

Characteristic: Contaminated sites near an electronics factory producing PCB-containing capacitors contribute to the long-term presence of toxic chemicals such as PCBs in the environment [37].

POPs levels: High PCB levels were detected in soil and in the blood of children living nearby. Total PCB concentrations in soil ranged from 116.6 to 108,460.6 µg/kg, with a mean of 20,109 µg/kg [37], while serum samples from children in Alpuyeca showed PCB 101 at 1,032.7 ± 2.84 ng/g lipid and β-endosulfan at 901.5 ± 2.8 ng/g lipid [34].

South America

Caribbean Netherlands

No. 15. Saliña Goto, Bonaire. PFHxS, PFOS and other PFAS.

Characteristic: In 2010, firefighting near the Saliña Goto nature reserve (Bonaire) resulted in elevated PFAS concentrations in Goto Lake. The flamingo population dropped due to toxicological effects on prey abundance. Additionally, flamingos fed on sediment organisms with PFAS levels exceeding safety thresholds, putting the birds and other wildlife at risk [38].

POPs levels: PFOS in sediment ranged from 7.2 to 783 μg/kg dw. PFPA, PFPHxA, PFBS, PFHxS, and PFOS levels in the lake water were mostly above 100 ng/L [38].

Peru

No. 16. Zapallal. PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: Activities in the area are e.g. smouldering of copper cables, burning of lead batteries, metal smelting, disposal of urban waste, etc. [39].

POPs levels: The highest levels of PCDD/Fs/dl PCBs in ash and soil were 14,000 and 15 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw. Egg yolk from the site and surroundings contained 5.8–7.7 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat [39]. These compounds also accumulated in plants. [39].

Argentina

No. 17. Santiago del Estero. DDT HCH.

Characteristic: Illegal disposal of more than 30 t HCHs and other organochlorines (chiefly DDT) [40].

Paraguay

No. 18. Laurelty-San Lorenzo. PCBs, PCDD/Fs.

Characteristic: On 14 October 2015, a fire broke out at a transformer storage site near Asunción, Paraguay, affecting around 6,000 transformers and capacitors potentially containing PCBs. Although extinguished, ash may have spread dioxins and furans. [41, 42]. The UN and BRS Conventions called for urgent action. In 2018, a GEF-funded UNIDO project began to eliminate 700+ tonnes of PCB waste and is ongoing as of March 2025 [43].

POPs levels: A review of 190 cases found detectable plasma PCB levels in 13% of patients within a month after the fire. Most were firefighters, both with and without symptoms. No chloracne was reported. The findings highlight the value of combining clinical and lab data. [44].

Brazil

No. 19. Pampulha Lake. PFOS, PFOA and other PFAS.

Characteristic: The likely sources of PFAS contamination include wastewater discharge from treatment plants, particularly during the wet season when the load of waste entering the reservoir increases. 

POPs levels: Surface water in the area has been contaminated with PFBS, PFDA, PFOA, PFOS, and other PFAS, with measured levels of PFOA ranging from 973.1 to 45,489.9 ng/L and PFOS levels between 895 and 29,013.1 ng/L [45].

No. 20. Cidade dos Meninos, municipal district of Duque de Caxias/RJ. DDT, HCH, PCDD/Fs.

Characteristic: After the pesticides production factory closure piles of residues were left behind causing the contamination of the soils.

POPs levels: Contamination of soil: HCH isomers: 22270 - 89468 ng/g dm; o,p-DDE: 322.5; p,p-DDE: 1507; o,p-DDD: 7040; p,p-DDD: 3641; o,p-DDT: 709; p,p-DDT: 5655 ng/g dm [46]. PCDD/Fs in cow's milk obtained in 1999 – 2000 varied from 4.07 to 6.54 pg I-TEQ/g fat [47].

Europe

Sweden

No. 21. Kramfors. PCP, PCDD/Fs.

Characteristic: Long-term use of pentachlorophenol at a sawmill resulted in contamination with PCDD/Fs.

POPs levels: Surveys of the soil showed dioxin concentrations ranging from below the limit of detection (LOD) up to 110 000 pg TEQ/g dw [48, 49]. At some other Swedish sawmill even higher level of 690 000 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw was observed in soil [50]. High level of 3,300 fg WHO-TEQ/m³ was measured in air in former timber drying storage. Among food samples the highest level of 3.53 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat was measured in chicken eggs [48].

United Kingdom

No. 22. Newcastle upon Tyne. PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: Between 1994 – 1999, 2000 tons of fly ash from the nearby Byker waste incinerator was used on footpaths in Newcastle. Poultry raised at allotments neighboring to footpaths was highly contaminated by dioxins and heavy metals [51, 52]. The ash was removed, and contaminated free-range chickens were slaughtered.

POPs levels: Maximum PCDD/F levels were 9,500 pg TEQ/g dw in ash, 292 pg TEQ/g dw in soil, and 56 pg TEQ/g fat in free-range chicken eggs [53, 54].

No. 23. Wheathampstead. DDT.

Characteristic: DDT contamination in Wheathampstead roach (a river fish) was linked to the former Murphy Chemical Company (1928–1982). A 1967 pesticide spill caused a major fish kill. Cleanup, including soil removal and reed-bed groundwater treatment, was completed in 1998 and still operated in 2016 [55].

POPs levels: Fish from the river Lee showed high DDT residues (avg. 88 ± 70 mg/kg ww), all exceeding Canada’s 14 mg/kg guideline [55].

Spain

No. 24. Sabiñánigo. HCH, HCB, PeCB, PCP.

Characteristic: INQUINOSA's lindane production (1975–1988) generated 115,000 tonnes of HCH waste, dumped mainly in Sardas, Bailín, and the factory site. These areas contain heavily contaminated liquids with HCH isomers, chlorobenzenes, and chlorophenols [56],  affecting the Gállego River basin, where lindane remained in drinking water for decades [57].

POPs levels: Soil and water samples showed extremely high α-, β-, and γ-HCH levels, up to 74,730,000 μg/kg in soil and 15,000 μg/L in water. Over 20 tonnes of DNAPL (dense non-aqueous phase liquid) with high POPs content were removed by 2013, but remediation remains challenging due to complex waste and hydrogeology. Monitoring continues [56].

Belgium

No. 25. Zwijndrecht, Antwerp, Flanders. PFOS, PFOA and other PFAS.

From 1972 to 2002, the American multinational 3M operated a factory in Antwerp, producing large quantities of PFOS [58]. For years, both 3M and local politicians concealed the pollution. However, subsequent tests revealed dangerously high PFAS levels in air, soil, and human blood. As a result, 3M was required to compensate several dozen agricultural businesses. PFOS, PFOA, and other PFAS compounds continue to be detected in environmental samples [59, 60].

POPs levels: Groundwater PFOS concentrations reached 257,000 µg/L [58]. Chicken eggs near the factory had PFOS levels ranging from 53 ng/g to 3,885 ng/g, indicating significant bioaccumulation [61]. Locally produced eggs and vegetables are now considered unsafe, and children are advised to wash their hands after playing outside. A blood screening showed that half of participants had high levels of four PFAS chemicals, and all had detectable PFAS levels [59, 60].

Germany

No. 26. Arnsberg, Sauerland, North Rhine-Westphalia. PFOS, PFOA and other PFAS.

An industrial-waste-derived soil amendment called Terrafarm was produced by the recycling company GW Umwelt and applied to agricultural land in the rural Sauerland region. This amendment, made from industrial waste with high PFAS concentrations, led to widespread environmental contamination.  As a result, 40,000 residents were exposed to PFOA-contaminated drinking water. 

POPs levels: PFAS, including PFOA and PFOS, were detected in drinking water, soil, human blood plasma, and fish. PFOA levels in drinking water ranged from 500 to 640 ng/L, raising significant concerns about environmental and human health impacts [62].

No. 27. Hamburg. HCH, lindane, PCDD/Fs.

Characteristic: Former lindane and 2,4,5-T pesticide production site. Operating from 1951 to 1984, the factory dumped or recycled much of the HCH waste into chemicals like chlorobenzenes [63]. It produced 3,700 tonnes of HCH recycling residue, containing 53–102 tonnes of PCDD/Fs, and 333–854 kg I-TEQ, deposited in six landfills in Germany [64]. Contamination from leaks and spills spread HCH isomers and PCDD/PCDF into soil and groundwater. 

POPs Levels: Around 262 tons of HCH isomers (mainly alpha- and beta-HCH) were found in soil. Approximately 16,000 tons of organochlorine waste, including 52–171 tons of PCDD/PCDF and 2,000 tons of HCH, were deposited in several landfills in Germany [63]. A dose-dependent relationship between exposure to these substances and increased mortality from cancer and ischemic heart diseases was found in workers [65].

Economy: Remediation costs for the landfills were estimated at over 800 million USD in 2008 [51]. By 2013, securing the production site cost approximately 110 million euros, with annual treatment costs of 1 million euros [63].

Czechia

No. 28. Usti nad Labem. PCBs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: In 2015, historically high PCB concentrations were detected in the Elbe (Labe), linked to maintenance dredging and possibly improper removal of PCB-containing paint during the repair of the railway bridge structure across the river [66].

POPs levels: PCB concentrations as high as 6,000 μg/kg for six PCB congeners were detected in sediment samples, the highest ever recorded at an Elbe (Labe) monitoring station [66, 67]. A sample of two bream fish from the Elbe (Labe) River in Ústí nad Labem Střekov exceeded all EU food limits: PCB concentration was 469.1 μg/kg (3.8 times the limit), dioxins were 4.8 ng/kg (1.4 times the limit), and the sum of dioxins and dl PCBs was 15.6 ng/kg (2.4 times the limit) [68]. All sediments and soils from the area under the bridge had to be remediated. The treated material contained a total of 4.76 kg of PCBs [69].

No. 29. Neratovice. HCH, lindane, PeCB, HCB, DDT, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: Spolana Neratovice, a Czech chemical plant, faced significant environmental contamination due to dioxins (PCDD/Fs) from the production of Agent Orange components in the 1960s and lindane, a pesticide, leading to severe soil pollution and contamination of sediments in the surrounding area, as well as fish in the Elbe River and a former sand quarry lake. To address this, the BCD (Base Catalyzed Decomposition) non-combustion technology was implemented from 2005 to 2010 to remediate the site [70].

POPs levels: Demolition waste contained PCDD/Fs up to levels almost 5000 ng TEQ/g dw and HCB up to almost 50 mg/g dw. Pesticides residues contained even higher levels of POPs pesticides [70, 71]. The highest concentration of PCDD/Fs in sediments from the premises of Spolana reached 15142 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw, and the highest concentration in water from the flooded area was 1,151 pg I-TEQ/L [72]. The residual amounts of PCDD/PCDF in the output oil from BCD technology were less than 0.016 ng TEQ/g and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) <0.2 μg/g [8]. Recent data confirm that PCDD/Fs (up to 13.35 ng TEQ/g dw), PeCB (up to 866 ng/g), and HCB (up to 18,800 ng/g) are still present in chlorine/PVC production wastes at high levels [73].

No. 30. Pardubice – Lhotka. HCH, DDT, PCBs, PBDEs, DP, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: The main sources of POPs contamination in the Synthesia Pardubice area include historical industrial wastewater discharges, unsecured hazardous waste landfills, sedimentation ponds, wastewater outlets, and the transport of DDT residues from other sites in the Czech Republic to local landfills.

POPs levels: A recent study investigated environmental contamination in Pardubice, focusing on the Synthesia chemical plant and POPs like PCB, DDT, HCH, PBDEs, PCDD/Fs, and dechlorane plus (DP) [74]. Elevated concentrations of these pollutants, exceeding safety thresholds, confirmed ongoing contamination observed in previous studies ([75]. The study recommends non-combustion technologies, such as Gas Phase Chemical Reduction (GPCR) or Industrial Supercritical Water Oxidation (iSCWO) combined with thermal desorption, for reducing environmental and health risks [74]. PBDE contamination was also confirmed in sediments and fish in the Elbe River [76-78].

Poland

No. 31. Warsaw – Bielany. PCBs.

Characteristic: Waste and oils originated from Warsaw ironworks contaminated with PCBs.

POPs levels: The most significant accumulation of PCBs at level of 14.2 ng/g dw in the topsoil layer occurred in the area where the largest amount of deposited waste. Among the examined plants, the largest sum of determined PCBs congeners was in Solidago canadensis leaves – 3.26 ng/g and Quercus L. leaves – 3.32 ng/g [79].

Switzerland

No. 32. Lausanne. PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: Contamination of soil at allotments caused by the closed-down municipal waste incinerator.

POPs levels: In December 2020, significant chlorinated dioxin concentrations were found in soil across Lausanne, Switzerland, reaching up to 640 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw [80]. A three-stage health risk assessment evaluated exposure through soil ingestion, vegetable consumption, and food from livestock raised on contaminated soil. The worst scenario involved consuming eggs from private poultry, resulting in elevated dioxin levels in blood serum, prompting protective measures and raising concerns about food from animals on slightly contaminated land [80]. A similar case occurred in Maincy, France [2, 81].

Italy

No. 33. Veneto. PFOS, PFOA and other PFAS.

Characteristic: For decades before contamination was discovered in 2013, wastewater from the Miteni company's PFAS production plant—used for herbicides, pharmaceuticals, and PFAS—led to extensive environmental pollution. A groundwater plume containing PFOA and other PFAS spread over 595 km², affecting around 140,000 residents in 21 municipalities, particularly through contaminated drinking water [82].

POPs levels: PFAS, including PFOA and PFOS, were detected in soil, groundwater, surface water, drinking water, and human blood serum. The highest recorded PFOA concentration in drinking water reached 1,475 ng/L, posing serious health and environmental risks [82].

Albania

No. 34. Porto Romano, Durres. HCH, lindane, DDT, HCB, endosulfan, aldrin, PCDD/Fs.

Characteristic: A large area near Porto-Romano, including a former chemical plant, waste dump, and chemical storage site, was severely contaminated by hazardous chemicals. The nearby dumpsite contained around 20,000 tons of toxic waste, including lindane and chromium-rich residue [83, 84].  Clean-up efforts started in 2005, removing 750 tons of pesticides by 2006, but organochlorine pesticides remain in water, soil, and biota [85].

POPs levels: A 2000 UNEP study found soil contamination with HCH isomers up to 8.83 g/kg, well water with HCH (4 mg/L) and chlorobenzene (4.4 mg/L), and high pesticide levels in milk (β-HCH 7.27 mg/kg) [83].  In 2006, free-range chicken eggs contained ΣDDT and ΣHCH at 263 and 1,871.2 ng/g fat [84, 86]. In 2020, marine water near Porto-Romano showed pesticide concentrations up to 209.4 µg/L, with endosulfan and aldrin as major contaminants [85].

Belarus

No. 35. Postavy. HCH, DDT, aldrin, heptachlor, endrin, PCDD/Fs.

Characteristic: The source of contamination is obsolete pesticide dumps, which have caused the migration of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) into groundwater, surface water, and soils, posing risks to both the environment and human health [87, 88].

POPs levels: In 2011, Arnika measured levels of the sum of DDT <LOQ – 140 ng/g dw and dioxin-like activity with DR CALUX at a level of 0.67 pg BEQ/g dw in soil at the site of the tomb [89]. In Postavy, in 2021, ΣHCH was found at 0.393 mg/kg and ΣDDT at 11.39 mg/kg in the soil [87]. Aldrin, endrin, and heptachlor were detected in the water [87, 88].

Ukraine

No. 36. Dmytrivka. DDT, HCH, HCB, PCDD/Fs.

Characteristic: Obsolete pesticides were buried near the village and agricultural land [90, 91].

POPs levels: sum of HCH 14.8 – 826 ug/g dw HCB 48.6 ug/g dw and sum of DDT 7.5 ug/g dw; PCDD/Fs 7240 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw  in mixed soil/pesticide samples [90, 91].

Turkiye

No. 37. Izmit. PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs, HCB.

Characteristic: Contamination of sediments in Izmit bay was attributed to former vinyl chloride production [92, 93]. Other studies have linked PCBs and PCDD/Fs contamination to hazardous waste incineration [94-96].

POPs levels: PCDD/F levels in Izmit Bay sediments ranged from 0.45 to 255 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw [92]. A 1999 earthquake affected contamination by dispersing polluted sediments further into the sea [97]. Studies also found PCDD/Fs, PCBs, and HCB in free-range chicken eggs [94], and a 2008 study concluded that consumable mussels from the bay pose a health risk due to PCB pollution [98].

Russia[1]

No. 38. Dzerzhinsk. PCBs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs, HCB.

Characteristic: Several chlorine chemical plants in Dzerzhinsk created hazardous waste landfills and settling ponds, which continue to pollute with POPs. Dzerzhinsk, home to various chemical factories, including those for Sarin and VX nerve gas, is considered the world’s most polluted industrial town (Guinness World Records). PCBs were also produced here [99]. A dominant landmark in the area is the “White Sea,” a 100-acre lake of toxic sludge discharged from nearby factories [100].

POPs levels: Free-range chicken eggs from this city were found to contain high levels of PCDD/Fs/dl PCBs (22 and 63 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat) as well as HCB (69 and 12 ng/g fat) [100].

No. 39. Ufa. HCB, HCBD, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Contamination source:  The Khimprom chemical plant in Ufa, Russia, produced organochlorine chemicals, including chlorophenols and phenoxyherbicides, leaving a legacy of severe POPs contamination. Operating for 55 years, the plant's first major accident in 1961 was only revealed in the 1990s. Production ceased in 2004, but pollution continues to threaten Ufa’s 1 million residents, with decontamination plans still pending. [99, 101].

 POPs levels: PCDD/F levels were measured as follows:

• Soil around the former Khimprom incinerator: Up to 10,000 pg TEQ/g
• Furnace sample: 18,400 pg TEQ/g
• Soil within 200 meters of the plant: Exceeded 200 pg TEQ/g in some areas
• Sediments from the site: Up to 71,000 pg TEQ/g
• Demolition debris from former production buildings: Up to 35,300 pg TEQ/g [101].

One of the highest levels of PCDD/Fs in human blood was measured in worker’s blood from Ufa (490 pg WHO-TEQ/g lipid) [99]. 

No. 40. Usolye-Sibirskoye. DDT, HCH, HCB, PCBs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: The Usolyekhimprom enterprise, which produced over a hundred chemical substances (such as chloronaphthalene, HCl, vinyl chloride, household chemicals, methylcellulose, trichloroethylene, pentachlorobenzene, epichlorohydrin, epoxydianic resin, varnishes, enamels, etc.) and employed 12,000 people, was shut down in 1998 due to severe mercury pollution. The site was declared bankrupt in 2012, and in response to chemical pollution threats, a state of emergency was declared in 2018 and again in 2020. Environmental remediation efforts began in 2020, including the dismantling of mercury electrolysis facilities, disposal of toxic waste, and the reclamation of the sludge collector, starting in 2023. [102].

POPs levels: POPs have been detected at varying levels in multiple matrices in the Lake Baikal region. In air, PCBs, DDTs, HCB, and HCHs were measured [103]. Maximum concentrations in soil from Usolye Sibirskoye were: HCB – 13 ng/g, ΣDDTs – 114 ng/g, ΣPCBs – 17 ng/g, and HCHs – 7.5 ng/g. In sediments: HCB – 0.13 ng/g, ΣDDTs – 6.1 ng/g, ΣPCBs – 17 ng/g, and HCHs – 0.7 ng/g [103].

In wildlife, Lake Baikal seals (Nerpa) showed ΣDDTs up to 6075 ng/g lipids and ΣPCBs at 2340 ng/g lipids. In snow: ΣPCBs – 658 ng/L, DDTs – 25 ng/L, HCHs – 8.3 ng/L, and HCB – 1.7 ng/L [102].

In food and human samples: cow milk contained PCBs up to 49 ng/g lipids, DDTs 23 ng/g, and HCHs 241 ng/g [104]; fish had ΣPCBs – 644 ng/g, ΣDDTs – 120 ng/g, and HCB – 39 ng/g lipids [105]. Chicken meat and eggs had ΣPCBs up to 5.7 ng/g and DDTs 57 ng/g lipids. In breast milk, PCDD/Fs averaged 37 pg/g lipid; blood samples peaked at 104 pg I-TEQ/g lipid in one individual [106].

No. 41. Kozmina Bay. PCBs, OCPs.

Characteristic: Most likely leakage of PCB oils from heavy ship transport [107].

POPs levels: The analysis of the ecological state of the Kozmina Bay in 2008 showed high concentrations of hydrocarbons, phenols, and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in bottom sediments of this water area [108, 109]. The results of analysis of bivalves’ soft tissues in 2017 showed the presence of chlorinated hydrocarbons (ΣOCP + ΣPCB) in all specimens within a range from 0.6 to 2,769.7 ng/g of lipid weight [110].

Asia

Armenia

No. 42. Jrarat. DDT, HCH, lindane, PCDD/Fs.

Characteristic: Obsolete pesticides stockpile is located in partly demolished buildings as of 2012.

High levels of DDT and HCH were measured in samples from Jrarat, confirming significant soil contamination and pesticide release into nearby soils, leading to dietary exposure risks from locally produced eggs. Passive air sampling also revealed strong pesticide concentration gradients in Nubarashen (another contaminated site in Armenia) and Jrarat [111, 112]. Following the research, the sites were partly secured but not remediated, leaving environmental risks unresolved.

Kazakhstan

No. 43. Nura River. PCBs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: The sediments of the Nura River downstream from the abandoned Karbid chemical factory in Temirtau, which produced acetaldehyde, are contaminated with high levels of PCBs. Temirtau also hosts several metallurgical plants. While the “River Nura Clean-Up Project” targeted mercury contamination [113], research by Arnika and EcoMuseum found high levels of both mercury and PCBs in the sediments that remained after remediation [114].

POPs levels: Sediments of the Nura River were found to be contaminated with PCBs at levels up to 35 mg/kg for a sum of 7 PCB congeners [114]. High levels of PCBs and PCDD/Fs were also observed in eggs from villages along the Nura River, near sites with contaminated sediments [115].

No. 44. Balkhash Radar Station – Daryal U. PCBs.

Characteristic: PCBs were used in capacitors and transformers at the abandoned Balkhash Radar Station Daryal-U, a Soviet military complex. After the USSR’s collapse, thieves, under nominal Russian military protection, stripped the site of valuable metals, leaving behind thousands of PCBs-filled capacitors [116, 117]. In 2004, EcoMuseum Karaganda discovered the contamination, sparking an international effort to remove the waste, but delays slowed progress [118]. Although some capacitors were sent to Germany, around five thousand remained, polluting the site and nearby buildings, with ongoing contamination threatening Lake Balkhash [115, 116].

POPs levels: A report on PCBs in snow cover identified the largest contamination sources along the north-western coast of Lake Balkhash and the northern Ili-Alatau Mountains, continuing to harm the environment [119].

Pakistan

No. 45. Nowshera – Amangarh. DDT.

Characteristic: The demolished factory, which produced DDT from 1963 to 1994, left behind significant contamination. 

POPs levels: DDT concentrations ranged from 242 to 780 μg/g in soil and up to 7,504 μg/g in pesticide residues from old bags and storage areas [120]. A later study found that 90.91% of soil samples were contaminated with DDT, with 66.6% exceeding the soil MRL of 0.05 μg/g [121].

India

No. 46. Barabanki, Ummari village, Uttar Pradesh HCH.

Characteristic: Widespread HCH contamination has been documented at the former lindane production unit, its surrounding areas, and at one of the major dumpsites used by the company [122].

POPs levels: Level of sum of HCH in soil up to 1854 mg/kg dw [122].

No. 47. Eloor, Kerala. DDT, HCH, HCB, endosulfan, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: The contamination at Eloor is primarily linked to the Hindustan Insecticides Limited (HIL) factory, which produced approximately 300 tonnes of waste per year as of 2004. This waste included pesticide and endosulfan residues and spent oil, both incinerated without proper ash disposal, as well as wastewater sludge dumped in an open area and old drums that were rarely decontaminated before disposal. [123]. 

POPs levels: In 1999, Greenpeace found over 100 organic compounds, including DDT, its metabolites, endosulfan, and HCH isomers, in sediments and water samples from the Kuzhikandam Thodu area [124]. The analysis of the eggs showed PCDD/Fs/dl PCBs at 15.08 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat, HCB at 7.70 ng/g fat [123], beta-HCH at 88 ng/g fat [125], and DDT and metabolites at 1678 ng/g fat [86].

Thailand

No. 48. Ban Nong Bua, Kalasin Province. PBDEs, HBCD, PCBs, DP, SCCPs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs, HCB, PeCB, HCBD

Characteristic: Electronic waste open burning at dumpsite. Dismantling, sorting and shredding of e-waste is source of contamination in workshops spread across nearby villages [126-128].

POPs levels: Dust: PBDEs concentration up to more than 4000 ng/g dw; PCDD/Fs up to almost 700 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw, 7 PCB congeners up to 2181 ng/g dw, DP up to 52 ng/g dw; sediments: PBDEs up to almost 300 ng/g, PCDD/Fs up to 2776 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw, 7 PCB congeners up to 96 ng/g dw and DP up to 15 ng/g dw. High levels of POPs were also observed in some of dismantling workshops in nearby villages, including levels in free range chicken eggs and blood serum samples [127, 128].

No. 49. Phuket. PFAS, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs, PBDD/Fs.

Characteristic: Waste incineration bottom ash and fly ash contaminated with POPs are dumped in neighborhood of municipal waste incinerators in Phuket.

POPs levels: A 2009 Umea University study found high PCDD/Fs (3,200–8,000 pg TEQ/g dm) and dl-PCBs (68–255 pg TEQ/g dm) in fly ash. Elevated levels were also detected in nearby lake sediment [39, 129]. Free-range eggs from Phuket ranked among Asia’s most contaminated [130]. Passerine bird eggs, crabs, mussels, and fish contained dioxins [131, 132]. PFAS were found in ash residues and Phuket eggs [133].

Vietnam

No. 50. Bien Hoa. DDT, HCH, HCB, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: Bien Hoa Airbase, established in 1953, is considered the most contaminated site in Vietnam [134, 135]. During the Vietnam War, it served as a storage facility for Agent Orange, leading to severe dioxin contamination. Between 1962 and 1971, over 80 million litres of Agent Orange were sprayed over South Vietnam [134]. Bien Hoa is one of the three most contaminated dioxin hotspots in the country [136, 137].

POPs levels: The Bien Hoa area in Vietnam remains heavily contaminated by dioxin, primarily from Agent Orange used during the war, with additional contamination from waste burning, pesticide use, and industrial activities. A study by Schecter, Quynh [138] found elevated dioxin levels in human blood (up to 413 ppt) and food samples, especially in chicken (up to 201,273 pg/g), duck (up to 68,099 pg/g), and toad (up to 8,003 pg/g). The highest levels of HCH isomers were found in duck (up to 418 pg/g), followed by chicken (up to 919 pg/g) and beef (up to 127 pg/g) [138]. The third highest level of PCDD/Fs ever measured—490 pg WHO-TEQ/g lipid—was recently detected in free-range chicken eggs from Bien Hoa [139, 140].

A 2013 study identified new contamination at the Pacer Ivy site of the Bien Hoa airbase, with dioxin levels exceeding 1,000 ppt TEQ, especially in sediment and soil (up to 962,559 ppt TEQ) [141]. Despite this, remediation efforts were halted in 2025 when the Trump administration stopped US Aid funding [142]. However, before this, the application of Electrochemical Degradation of Lipids (EDL) technology significantly reduced dioxin concentrations in contaminated waste, from 28,500 pg TEQ/g to 338 pg TEQ/g [143]. Ongoing remediation is urgently needed to address the persistent contamination in the area.

Economy: In 2019, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) began a $183 million, 10-year project to decontaminate the base. However, by 2025, the project faced setbacks due to funding cuts from the Trump administration [135, 142]. Remediation efforts have included recommendations such as draining retention ponds, ball milling contaminated soils, and placing treated soil in a bio-reactor landfill [144]. Environmental Decontamination Limited (EDL), a New Zealand-based company, has been working on-site since 2012, applying the mechano-chemical destruction process to address the soil and groundwater contamination caused by the stored defoliant [143]. USAID had hired a US/Canadian company for USD 72 million [145], which had recently been sending thousands of tonnes of soil from Bien Hoa to a direct thermal desorption unit—a method that does not prevent the formation of POPs such as dioxins [143].

Singapore

No. 51. Johor Straits, Western area. PFOS, PFOA.

Characteristic: Effluents from domestic and industrial wastewater treatment plants, fluorochemical industries, and firefighting foam use at the airport have contributed to PFAS contamination in surface and coastal waters. Discharges from fluorochemical-related factories are the highest contributors to PFOA pollution in wastewater. Industrial activities are likely major sources of PFOS and PFOA in the Johor Straits [146].

POPs levels: Maximum concentrations detected: PFOS – 532 ng/L in wastewater, 87.3 ng/L in surface water, 8.9 ng/L in coastal water; PFOA – 1,060 ng/L in wastewater, 91.5 ng/L in surface water, 17.8 ng/L in coastal water. These results confirm a broad environmental impact from industrial and municipal discharges [146].

Indonesia

No. 52. Tropodo, Krian S|ub-district, Sidoarjo Regency. PBDEs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs, HCB, PeCB.

Characteristic: Plastic waste was burned as fuel in tofu production facilities [147, 148]. Ash containing POPs—mainly PBDEs and PCDD/Fs—was later used to improve pathways and cover wetlands in the village [147].

POPs levels: Ash: PCDD/Fs up to1246 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw, dl PCBs up to 119 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw, HCB up to 34 ng/g dw, PeCB up to 54 ng/g dw. Free range chicken eggs: PBDEs up to 1457 ng/g fat, PCDD/Fs up to 200 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat, dl PCBs up to 32 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat, HCB up to 5.5 ng/g fat, PeCB up to 1.9 ng/g fat [147, 149, 150].

China

No. 53. Huantai, Xiaoqing river, Shandong Province. PFOA and other PFAS.

Characteristic: The Xiaoqing River basin receives wastewater discharges from one of Asia's largest fluoropolymer production sites. Chemical manufacturing in this region has led to significant PFAS pollution, particularly from a fluoropolymer manufacturer releasing contaminated wastewater into the river. 

POPs levels: Surface water samples have shown extremely high concentrations of PFOA and other PFAS, with the maximum recorded PFOA level reaching 320,000 ng/L [151].

No. 54. Weifang Binhai Economic and Technological Development Area (BEDA) of Shandong Province. PBDEs.

Characteristic: According to Li, Niu [152], a chemical plant in Shandong province produced bromine-based products, including deca-BDE. Chen, Li [153] reported that production was still ongoing, with Shandong having the highest deca-BDE output (362.23 kt) and emissions (21.37 ± 1.38 kt) in China. According to the BAT/BEP Expert Group [154], the production and export of deca-BDE in China was prohibited as of December 31, 2023 [155] (Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China, 2023).

POPs levels: High concentrations of PBDEs, especially BDE-209, were detected in both topsoil and plant samples near the deca-BDE manufacturing factory, indicating significant pollution in the area. PBDE concentrations in topsoil ranged from 17.0 to 146 μg/g dry weight (dw), and in plants, concentrations ranged from 0.640 to 89.0 μg/g dw [152]. Additionally, high PBDE exposure was reported in residents of Shandong Province, with blood serum levels ranging from 44.2 to 256 ng/g lipid weight between 2007 and 2013 in the Weifang population [156].

No. 55. Jiangyin City, Jiangsu Province. PBDEs.

Characteristic: The factory produced deca-BDE, a type of brominated flame retardant (BFR), and pollution persists in the surrounding environment even after its closure [157].

POPs levels: High levels of PBDEs have generally been observed in PBDE production facilities [156]. PBDE concentrations varied across soil and plants. In soil, levels ranged from below detection to 37,000 ng/g (dry weight), with BDE-209 as the dominant congener. In plants, ∑7 PBDEs (BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, -154, -183) ranged from 7.89 to 1,087.19 ng/g, while BDE-209 levels were significantly higher, between 2,806 and 19,383 ng/g (dry weight) [157]. BDE-209 concentrations in tree bark were higher in Jiangsu Province, indicating severe pollution in the region [158].

No. 56. Taizhou, Zhejiang Province. PCBs, PBDEs.

Characteristic: Soil contamination around an abandoned E-waste dismantling site, where electronic waste is processed, often in informal settings heavily polluted by POPs. 

POPs levels: PCB concentrations ranged from below detection to 2985.25 μg/kg (dry weight), with an average of 15.26 μg/kg. PBDEs in soil ranged from ND to 899.34 μg/kg, with BDE-209 as the dominant congener [159]. Extremely high PBDE levels were found in Taizhou, including up to 172,000 ng/g dw in river sediments [160] and 3,620 ng/g fat in free-range chicken eggs [161]. PBDEs were also detected in air, fish, local food, blood, and hair [156]. Human milk samples showed very high concentrations [156], and a hospital report confirmed PBDE transfer to fetuses during the first trimester [162].

Taiwan

No. 57. Hsinchu, Nanmen River. PFOS and other PFAS.

Characteristic: Effluent from an industrial wastewater treatment plant at Hsinchu Science Park, a hub for 384 high-tech companies—including 86 optoelectronics firms, 203 integrated circuit companies, and 27 semiconductor fabrication plants—has contributed to PFAS pollution in the surrounding environment.

POPs levels: PFOS and other PFAS have been detected in surface water, with the highest recorded PFOS concentration reaching 6,050 ng/L, highlighting the impact of industrial discharges on local water quality [163].

Japan

No. 58. Tejima Island. PCBs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: Industrial waste, including shredder residues from car shredders, electronic waste, and industrial sludge, was illegally dumped into a 30 ha gravel pit site on Teshima Island, contributing to significant contamination [25, 164].

POPs levels: Greenpeace measured 8.9 ppm of the PCB concentration in soil [165]. However, total amount of dioxin-like contamination was estimated to 1.6 kg TEQ [164]. 

Economy: Site was already remediated for 450 million USD [164].

No. 59. Katsura River. PFOS, PFOA and other PFAS.

Characteristic: Effluent from a sewage treatment plant has been found to contain significant loads of PFOS and PFOA, with industrial and other non-domestic wastewater contributing heavily to the contamination [166].

POPs levels: PFOA and other PFAS have been detected in surface water, with the highest recorded PFOA concentration reaching 2,568 ng/L, underscoring the role of wastewater treatment plants as a source of PFAS pollution in the aquatic environment [166].

Africa

Senegal

No. 60. Mbeubeuss dumpsite, Dakar larger area. PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs, HCB.

Characteristic: The Mbeubeuss dumpsite near Dakar, Senegal, has caused significant contamination due to the disposal of hazardous waste, including possibly pentachlorophenol, and open burning near Mbeubeuss Lake. This has led to the presence of dioxins in free-range chicken eggs [167]. Recent studies also report ongoing e-waste recycling at the site [168].

POPs levels: PCDD/Fs in eggs exceeded EU limits in 2005 by more than 11 times, with a measured level of 35.1 pg WHO-TEQ/g of fat. PCBs and HCB were also detected in the eggs [167].

Ghana

No. 61. Accra – hospital. PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic:  Waste incineration ash left next to a shutdown small medical waste incinerator in Accra is the source of contamination with PCDD/Fs.

POPs levels: Residual ash containing 551 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw of PCDD/Fs led to a contamination level of 49 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat in free-range chicken eggs from hens that had access to the ash pile. The ash and eggs were also contaminated with dl-PCBs [169, 170]. 

No. 62. Accra – Agbogbloshie. PCBs, PBDEs, HBCD, SCCPs, PFOA, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs, HCB, PeCB, PBDD/Fs.

Characteristic: Electronic waste and car wrecks were dismantled in a large scrapyard in Accra, where plastics and liquids released various POPs, with more forming during open burning [169]. 

POPs levels: High levels of POPs have been measured in soils, sediments, and residual ash at this scrapyard by numerous studies [171-173]. For example, PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs reached nearly 24,000 pg WHO-TEQ/g dw [171],  PFOA in soil 2.6-5.0 μg/kg [174]. The highest ever measured levels of PCDD/Fs/dl-PCBs (856 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat) and PBDD/Fs (300 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat) were also observed in free-range chicken eggs from this site [175].

Nigeria

No. 63. Ojota, Lagos. PBDEs, PCBs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs, PBDD/Fs.

Characteristic: Electronic waste dismantling, dumping, and open burning are sources of POPs contamination in Ojota, one of the largest e-waste sites in East Africa [176]. The contamination at this site is potentially similar to that found in Agbogbloshie [169, 173] and Kalasin [126, 127]. It was estimated that more than 23,400,000 tons of plastics entered the Nigerian economy between 1996-2014, with less than 12% of the resulting waste in the recycling stream [177].

POPs levels: No specific levels were found at this site, but high PBDEs were detected in e-waste imported to Nigeria [178]. A 2015 study estimated 1,270 t of POP-PBDEs in e-waste plastics, with 900 t in the end-of-life phase, leading to pollution and exposure risks [179]. Another study estimated 237,000 t of CRT casings in Nigeria contain 2-8 t of PBDD/Fs [180]. Workers at scrapyards like Ojota are at risk of cancer, stroke, and eye problems [176].

Cameroon

No. 64. Northwest Region. PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: Medical waste incineration results in the generation of waste incineration ash, which is a source of contamination with PCDD/Fs. Three clinical waste incinerators were studied. The waste is carried in plastic buckets and dumped in open municipal sites or landfills. During the planting season, incinerator bottom ash is sometimes used as fertilizer on farmlands [181].

POPs levels: PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs levels are expected to be similar to those observed at other small medical waste incinerators in Africa [169, 170].

Kenya

No. 65. Nairobi – Ngara market. PCBs, PBDEs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristics: Ngara market is one of typical African sites where electronic waste and car wrecks are dismantled [182].

POPs levels: Free range chicken eggs from this site were found to contain the highest ever measured levels of dl PCBs (up to 555 pg WHO-TEQ/g fat) as well as very high levels of PCBs (up to 3137 ng/g fat for the sum of 7 PCB congeners) [183].

Tanzania

No. 66. Vikuge. DDT, HCH, HCB, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.
Characteristic: Around 600 Mt of obsolete pesticides donated in 1986 were improperly stored at the Vikuge site without preparation. Following a shed collapse in 1993, the pesticides leaked into the soil and groundwater [184]. 

POPs levels: Vikuge, one of the most seriously contaminated sites with POPs in Africa, had high DDT levels in the soil, lacked proper barriers, and eggs from nearby free-range chickens contained elevated levels of dioxins, PCBs, and HCB [184], 310 ng/g fat of beta-HCH [125], and extremely high DDT and metabolites at 7041 ng/g fat [86].

South Africa

No. 67. Vanderbijlpark. HBCD, PBDEs, PCDD/Fs, dl PCBs.

Characteristic: A large dumpsite for wastes, some of which are contaminated with POPs, from nearby iron and steel manufacturing plant [25].

POPs levels: PCB, PCDD/Fs and BFR levels were higher in Vanderbijlpark than in Sasolburg and commercial eggs [185]. Near the metallurgical complex, PCDD/Fs and dl-PCBs reached high concentrations compared to other South African sites [186].

No. 68. Umvoti Gledhow site. PFOA.

Characteristic: Effluent from a pulp and paper mill upstream of the estuary has been identified as the main source of PFOA contamination in the area. Discharges from this industry have led to PFAS pollution in surface water, sediment, and fish. 

POPs levels: PFOA concentrations in surface water have been recorded between 711 and 788 ng/L [187].

Australia and Oceania

No. 69. Pearce, Western Australia. PFOS, PFOA and other PFAS.

Characteristic: At RAAF Air Force Base Pearce, Western Australia, PFAS contamination is most concentrated in areas where firefighting foams (aqueous film-forming foam) were used in fire training, stored, or disposed of. Over time, PFAS migrated offsite, leading to restrictions on the use of groundwater and surface water for surrounding properties [188]. Residents in the area are required to use bottled water.

POPs levels: PFOS, PFOA, and other PFAS have been detected in both surface and groundwater, with the total PFAS concentration in groundwater reaching 6,029,348.3 ng/L [188]. PFAS contamination of Ki It brook and Ellen Brook from the Pearce Air Base may also be feeding PFAS contamination into the Swan River.

No. 70. Port Jackson, New South Wales. PCDD/Fs.

At Port Jackson, contamination originates from a former pesticide production facility operated by Union Carbide, which produced 2,4,5-T and PCP [51].

POPs levels: Concentrations of PCDD/Fs in sediments from Port Jackson ranged from 32 to 4352 pg WHO-TEQ/g [189].

New Zealand

No. 71. Rotorua Lake. PCP.

Characteristic: Sawmills upstream from the lake are a source of contamination with pentachlorophenol (PCP) due to the application of PCP on wood [190].

POPs levels: Elevated PCP concentrations were observed with the maximum concentration of 418 ng/g dw in sediments [190].

Antarctica

No. 72. McMurdo Station. PCBs.

Characteristic: Even in the pristine environment of Antarctica, the McMurdo landfill, resulting from the research station’s waste management practices, has caused local contamination with a wide variety of inorganic and organic contaminants, including PCBs in the 1990s. Contamination levels have decreased since that time [191, 192].

Abbreviations used in the text: 

2,4,5-T - 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (pesticide)

AFFF - aqueous film-forming foam

BAT – best available techniques

BCD – base catalyzed decomposition (non-combustion remediation technology)

BEP – best environmental practices

BEQ – bioanalytical equivalent [193, 194]

BFRs – brominated flame retardants

DDD - dichlordiphenyldichlorethane

DDE – dichlordiphenyldichlorethene

DDT – dichlordiphenyltrichlorethane (pesticide)

deca-BDE – decabromodiphenyl ether

dl PCBs – dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls

DP – dechlorane plus

DR CALUX - dioxin-responsive chemical-activated luciferase gene expression

dw – dry weight

fw – fresh weight

GEF – Global Environemnt Facility

HCB – hexachlorbenzene (technical substance, pesticide, undesired product)

HCH – hexachlorcyclohexan (pesticide)

gamma HCH – gama isomer of hexachlorcyclohexan, usually called lindane (pesticide)

I-TEQ – international toxic equivalent

LOQ – level of quantification

lw – lipid weight

MRL – maximum residue level

OCPs – organochlorinated pesticides

PBDD/Fs – polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, shortly called „brominated dioxins“ (unintentionally produced POPs)

PBDEs – polybrominated diphenylethers (brominated flame retardants)

PCBs – polychlorinated biphenyls (technical substance)

PCDD – polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins

PCDD/Fs – polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, shortly called „dioxins“ (unintentionally produced POPs)

PCP – pentachlorophenol (pesticide)

PeCB – pentachlorobenzene

PFAS – per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances

PFBS – perfluorobutanesulfonic acid

PFCA – perfluorocarboxylic acids

PFDA – perfluorodecanoic acid

PFPHxA – perfluorohexanoic acid

PFHxS – perfluorohexanesulfonic acid

PFOA – perfluorooctanoic acid

PFOS – perfluorooctanesulfonic acidPOPs – persistent organic pollutants

PFPA – perfluoropentanoic acid

SCCPs – short-chain chlorinated paraffins

TEQ – toxic equivalent 

UNEP – United Nations Envronment Programme

UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization

USAID - United States Agency for International Development

WHO-TEQ – toxic equivalent according to the document of the World Health Organization [3].

ww – wet weight

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